Effect of sleep quality on perceived academic performance

Effect of sleep quality on perceived academic performance Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to study the impact of the quality of sleep of student of premier MBA institutes on their perceived academic performance. This study also aims to establish whether the burnout faced by students behaves as a mediator in the relationship between the sleep quality and the perceived academic performance. Finally, keeping work experience as a moderator, we also aim to study whether students with more than 12 months of work experience show any difference in the results when compared to those with less than 12 months experience. Design/methodology/approach: A questionnaire was designed using 3 pre-existing scales to measure Sleep Quality, Burnout and Perceived Academic Performance. This questionnaire was floated in the electronic format to students of XLRI Jamshedpur and other schools of business in India. A total of 163 students responded with completely filled in surveys. Findings: The study concluded that the Sleep Quality does not have a direct impact on the Perceived Academic Performance in the case of students without work-experience. However, the indirect effect is significant, and Sleep Quality affects Burnout, which in turn has an impact on Perceived Academic Performance. Research limitations/implications: One of the major limitations of the study was that majority of the respondents were from only one Business-school, viz. XLRI Jamshedpur. In order to generalize the result across all B-school students of India, more participants from other B-schools need to be contacted. Also, while the Academic Confidence Scale, used to measure perceived academic performance, is better than using only grades, a better scale needs to be developed to thoroughly measure the performance of students not only in examinations but also in class through learning capacity, etc. Originality/value: Previous studies have identified that there is certainly an impact of duration and quality of sleep on the academic performance of high-school (and younger) students, as well as on the organisational performance of professionals. However, no study has previously been conducted for students of MBA courses. Keywords: Sleep Quality, Perceived Academic Performance, Burnout, Exhaustion Paper Type: Research Introduction As the corporate world begins to get more competitive, greater demands are made by organisations from employees and even more from those in managerial capacities. These demands are met by working professionals who modify their lifestyles in order to dedicate more time and effort towards achieving the high standards set by a demanding corporate world. This includes habits such as skipping breakfast and sleeping less. Such characteristics are observed also among B-school students who live on or near campus. Apart from low duration of sleep, many students also have irregular sleeping patterns and their quality of sleep is often not very high due to disturbances and other reasons. This irregular sleep pattern and low quality of sleep result in a drop in perceived academic performance of students. The high levels of academic rigour encouraged by the premier B-schools of India result in a high requirement of hard work and a very large number of hours per week to be put into coursework. A continued high level of demand can result in students feeling a sense of burning out-which is defined by a drop in motivation levels to work, mental exhaustion and sometimes also leads to students questioning their courses and their own abilities. Irregular and poor quality sleep is likely to result in a quicker onset of burnout among students. It is to be expected that once students start burning out, their performance in class and their confidence in their academic capabilities begin to suffer. Prior studies have observed and established the effect of sleep quality on students of high-school and of younger ages. Some studies have also been carried out on students of under-graduate courses. However, our study is primarily aimed at observing these effects on students of Business schools only. We are also aiming to establish whether or not the burnout level of a student is a significant mediator on the effect of sleep quality on perceived academic performance. Research background and hypotheses Sleep Quality Sleep is a complex phenomenon to measure. Sleep quantity is considered universally as a good measure to evaluate this phenomenon but results indicate that for studies, researchers should use sleep quality than sleep quantity which includes many other factors other than just the duration of sleep (Vail-Smith et al, 2009). In some studies, sleep quality was measured by factors such as sleep environment, noise disturbances, other sleep accessories (Triangle Business Journal, 2010). Many other studies measured sleep by collecting information regarding not just the number of hours of sleep but also time awake in the middle of the night, time taken to fall asleep related factors (Business Wire, 2009) To suit our requirement for measuring sleep quality, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (Sleep Medicine Index, 2010) was used. This index includes not only the number of hours of sleep but also any disturbances in sleep, sleeping waking up time, and the subsequent effects of the sleep pattern on the subsequent days functioning. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) (Buysse et al. 1989a) helps to discriminate between good and poor sleepers. The different dimensions covered by this index are Subjective Sleep Quality, Sleep Latency, Sleep Duration, Habitual Sleep Efficiency, Sleep Disturbances, Use of Sleep Medications, and Daytime Dysfunction. It is comprises of 19 self-rated questions 5 questions that are by a roommate. In the end it generates seven scores by summing up the component scores of the seven components. For our research purpose, we have taken only the 19 self-rated questions only since in the B-School context many students stay in single rooms in hostels. Hence, including the other 5 questions will not aid in the research. For the scale items, see Appendix 1. Burnout No doubt the sleep quality affects the perceived academic performance but it alone will keep the research restricted. Hence, a mediating variable is used to explain the whole effect. So burnout is used as a mediator here. Burnout is a concept that is used mainly in the work related context. It is defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, cynicism or depersonalization, and reduced personal efficacy. Common symptoms of burnout are stress, exhaustion, fatigue, lack of concentration etc. As stated above, usually burnout is used in work related context especially for executives, CEOs etc (Anonymous, 2002); however, we have extended its usage for B-School students as well. Since a B-School environment demands meeting deadlines, toiling hard working for long hours- all of which are reasons that can cause burnout. To measure Burnout, School Burnout Inventory (SBI) is used. This inventory comprises of three dimensions- exhaustion, cynicism towards meaning of school sense of inadequacy. Out of these, only first two namely, exhaustion cynicism are used in our research; inadequacy is not measured since it is not applicable for our sample students. For the scale items, see Appendix 2. Perceived Academic Performance Instead of taking the academic Grade point as a measure of the academic performance of a student, we took the perceived academic performance as an effective construct to measure the capability of a student. Since academic performance means understanding, assimilating reproducing the teachings not getting good grades alone. This has been cited as the militation in many studies before. According to researchers, learning satisfaction from the course sheds more light on the topic of academic performance. (Garger et al, 2010) To measure the perceived Academic Performance for the B-School student, Academic Confidence Scale (ACS) is used. This scale has six factors namely, studying, understanding, verbalizing, clarifying, attendance grades. Out of these, verbalizing clarifying are not very relevant variables in a B-School context since these are basic skills which are expected from all students of B-schools. For the scale items, see Appendix 3. Work Experience as Moderator Research has been done linking sleep deprivation with burnout in corporate environment. The continuous stress that people in jobs feel is more especially at the higher levels in the organization (Anonymous, 2002). This continuous exposure to the high levels of stress gives students with more than 12 months of work experience more ability to handle low quality sleep and therefore, it should not affect their performance. Sleep Quality Burnout Burnout has a variety of causes and symptoms that erode the mental, emotional and spiritual quality of life. (Francis, 2006) Among other symptoms, sleep quality is considered as one of the major symptoms of burnout in humans. During sleep our body releases hormones etc which are used to repair damaged cells etc. Lack of sleep stops this process and hence leads to irritation, frustration, fatigue-all symptoms of burnout (Francis, 2006). Human body has a natural way of relieving stress through sleep (Spencer, 1987). Research has been done linking sleep deprivation with burnout in medical students (Dyrbye et al, 2006) corporate (Anonymous, 2002) but no such study has been done in B-School students. This research gap has been identified used in our model. Burnout and Perceived Academic Performance Students who feel energetic feel the vigour to perform give good academic results compared to their counterparts (Schaufeli et al, 2002). Burnout levels of students indicated by stress, fatigue etc cause low performance by students in academics this result is true not just for people of a particular nationality but has been proved for people of many countries (Schaufeli et al, 2002). This result can be used here as well for linking the burnout to academic performance of B-School students. Since in a B-School environment, there is a high stress work load which causes burnout to a large extend hence can affect the academic performance of the students. Sleep Quality and Perceived Academic Performance In the past, extensive research has been done in the area of sleep affecting academic performance. Most of the students who complained about sleep difficulties showed a drop in the performance compared to the others. (Anonymous, 2008). Regular proper sleep patterns among others are healthy habits which affect the grades a student gets. (Paul et al, 2008). Especially in a college environment, the students who take enough sleep, tend to score better than the others who sleep less. (France. 2009). Sleep patterns of college students are unique since it is influenced by work-related stress, parties, communal living arrangements etc. (Vail-Smith, 2009) This is an interesting observation as peoples attitude here are determined, to a large extent, by the group dynamics. Methods Sample The targeted sample consisted of B-school students studying in a 2-year full-time Post-Graduate course in MBA. Most of the respondents were students of the first year who have spent approximately 9 months in the course. However, some students of the second year have also been contacted to take their responses. The questionnaire, consisting of 33 items, was hosted online on Google Documents and the link to the form was sent personally to students via email and instant messages. The form contained no personal information that could be used to identify the respondents. In total, 163 respondents filled in the questionnaire. Of these, it is estimated that 131 respondents are from among the first and second year students of XLRI Jamshedpur. The remaining 32 respondents are from other institutes across India. Measures Our model consists of 3 constructs and one moderator as given below. The constructs were measured using modified versions of pre-existing scales as indicated below. Figure 1: Model Sleep Quality Work Experience Burnout Academic Confidence Sleep Quality Sleep Quality was measured using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a 24-item scale that consists of various types of questions ranging from subjective questions to multiple-choice questions, as well as some questions based loosely on the Likert Scale. Of the 24 items present on the PSQI, we have modified the scale to exclude the last 6 items (refer Appendix 1), since these are not applicable to B-school students. These questions are to be answered if the respondent generally sleeps with a partner or room-mate, and if the room-mate has observed any irregular sleeping patterns. Burnout Burnout has been measured by the School Burnout Inventory, developed by Salmela-Aro et al (Salmela-Aro,K. et al, 2009). This inventory was developed to be used on higher secondary school students and contains 9 items that measure burnout on 3 dimensions-exhaustion due to coursework, cynicism towards school and inadequacy at performing well at school. Of these dimensions, we have chosen to study only exhaustion and cynicism, since inadequacy is not applicable to students of the age of MBA students. Therefore, the scale has been modified to include only 7 questions in the final questionnaire (refer Appendix 2). Perceived Academic Performance The perceived academic performance is measured by using the Academic Confidence Scale (ACS) (Sander, P. Sanders, L., 2003). This scale consists of 24 items based on 5-point Likert scale. The questions measure Academic Confidence in 6 dimensions-Studying, Understanding, Attendance, Grades, Verbalizing, Clarifying. Of these 6 dimensions, the last 2 are not applicable for students of B-schools, since it is assumed that these students would show an accomplished level of verbalizing and clarifying aptitude. Of the remaining questions, we have chosen 8 items (Appendix 3) that display the best coefficients for the remaining 4 dimensions. Analysis The analysis is carried out for both Moderator Analysis and Mediator Analysis. For types of analysis, we are using the four-step method developed by Baron and Kenny (Baron, R.M. Kenny, D.A., 1986). For Moderator Analysis, we initially select all cases for which the student has work experience greater than 12 months and carry out the analysis. Similarly, the same is carried out for students having greater than 12 months of work experience. Finally, all cases are taken to carry out the Mediation Analysis. In order to measure the significance of mediation analysis, the Sobel Test is carried out as well. Results Sleep Quality and Burnout The regression analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between sleep quality burnout. It was carried out for both the values of the bi-variate moderator. Relationship Significance Unstandardised coefficient Standardised coefficient R Square Work experience 0.000 0.453 0.405 0.164 Work experience > 12 m 0 0.428 0.444 0.197 Overall 0 0.461 0.442 0.195 Table 1: Results for Sleep quality Burnout As we can see from the above table, the relation is significant in all the three cases the impact is also almost the same. From the values of beta and B, we can interpret that for every B-School student a poor sleep quality leads to increase in burnout. This could be attributed to the fact that burnout is a physical a mental condition which is same for the all the human beings. Every human being needs sleep to recover energy though the time duration of the requirement may be different. But a minimum amount of sleep is necessary for all. Burnout and Perceived Academic Performance The regression analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between burnout and academic performance. It was carried out for both the values of the bi-variate moderator. Relationship Significance Unstandardised coefficient Standardised coefficient R Square Work experience 0.001 -0.53 -0.355 0.126 Work experience > 12 m 0.002 -0.541 -0.355 0.126 Overall 0 -0.527 -0.353 0.125 Table 2: Results for Burnout Perceived academic Performance As we can see, here also burnout level increase leads to a decrease in the perceived academic performance of an individual. This shows that a persons perceived academic performance is affected by the burnout level. This in turn proves the hypothesis stated and reinforces the previous researches done on the same subject. Sleep Quality and Perceived Academic Performance The regression analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between sleep quality perceived academic performance. It was carried out for both the values of the bi-variate moderator. Relationship Significance Unstandardised coefficient Standardised coefficient R Square Work experience 0.883 -0.040 -0.024 0.001 Work experience >12 m 0.009 -0.443 -0.302 0.091 Overall 0.081 -0.213 -0.137 0.019 Table 3: Results for Sleep quality Perceived Academic Performance As we can see that the significance level is within the confidence interval only for the values with work experience > 12 months. The likely reason for this can be that people with work experience are used to maintaining high pressures on the job. Working round the clock, meeting deadlines etc are a part of their lives and they dont feel much difference when they enter a B-School. In contrast to this, freshers (college graduates) are not accustomed to a hectic schedule. The model with the results is shown below: Figure 2: Model with the moderator values Values on the left hand side are values for work experience less than 12 months; Values on the right hand side are values for work experience more than 12 months *symbolises that the result is significant Discussions and Implications As we can see, that the total effect is significant but is attributed to the indirect effect only and not to the direct effect. Also, the net magnitude of the total effect is very less. The factors that can be attributed to these results can be as follows. Over a period of time, human body adapts itself to any routine. Here the timing of our research plays an important role. Most of our respondents are 1st year MBA students who have spent almost nine months in a B-School. Nine months is a long enough time for the human body to adapt to such any change in routine. Had this research been conducted when the students entered the B-School, results might have been different The age group of all the respondents is between 20 to 30 years. In this age group predominantly, the human body has the energy, stamina the will to withstand any adversities in the external environment. If such a study is conducted in people of a different age group, their body might not have the vigour and will to withstand harsh environment circumstances Also, as we saw that the direct relationship between sleep quality perceived academic performance is significant only in the case of people having work experience more than 12 months. As we know, across B-Schools in India, number of students with prior work experience is less compared to the others. Hence, had the research been conducted for B-Schools overseas as well, the results might have been different with a significant direct effect as well. This research highlights the relationship between poor sleep quality burnout of students in B-Schools. This further leads to a dip in their perceived academic performance. To avoid this, B-school administration should consider preparing the schedule or curriculum of the academic year in such a way that the students dont need to compromise on their sleep quality. This will help them maintain attentiveness, concentration, etc. this in turn will help them improve their perceived academic performance. Also, the hectic life-style in a B-school takes its toll on mental health of the students by making them cynical in their approach towards their courses/academics due to burnout. Limitations Following are the limitations we encountered during this research study: Sample size not large enough: Although, responses from 163 respondents were collected but, still larger number of respondents if covered would lend more accuracy to the research findings. Also, majority of the respondents (about 80%) are XLRI students, research findings could be much more accurate if we can collect more responses from other B-school students. Timing of the survey: Since, after spending about 9-10 months in a B-school environment, students become habitual to this kind of a life style, so the impact of sleep quality on burnout or their perceived academic performance subsides. Had this research been conducted when the students would have just entered the B-school, responses would have been more impactful. Age group of the respondents: Since, most of the students in a B-school are in the age group of 20 to 30 years, they have much more will power their capabilties in terms of adapting to the needs of the environment are much more. Thus, they easily adopt to the lifestyle requirements of a B-school. Homogeneous group: These responses are collected from the respondents belonging to the same race culture, thus, the group is homogeneous. Responses should also be collected from the students of foreign B-schools who belong to different race, culture, religon ethnicity then, the findings would be far more accurate diverse. Group Dynamics: Group Dynamics play a very important role in influencing the behaviour of B-school students. Since, almost everybody sleeps late in the night, so it becomes a norm nobody feels that he/she is not getting enough sleep or he/she is being sleep deprived. Future Scope The scope of this research can be extended in future as follows: Increase the sample size to include students from other B-schools also, not only students from top B-schools. Also, students from foreign B-schools can be included in the sample. Similar research can be done for students who are not B-school students but, tend to follow similar life-style, like aspirants preparing for competitive entrance examinations. As already stated above, this research should include the responses of the students studying in foreign B-schools. Probably, then we will be able to make general statements about the characteristics of all B-school students. We need to measure the effect of Group dynamics also in our research study since group behaviour is known to influence the norms in the group. The timing of the research study is very important. Research should be conducted at the start of the B-school session for new admits who have not become habitual to B-school lifestyle. References Anas, B. (2009), Sleepless On Campus, McClatchy Tribune Business News. Training Development Anonymous (2002), To burnout and back: CEOs are top candidates for stress overload. Admit it or face the consequences, Profit. Toronto: Sep 2002. Vol. 21, Iss. 5; pg. 70 Anonymous (2008), Study Finds Lack of Sleep, Excessive Computer Screen Time, Stress and More Hurt College Students Grades; University of Minnesota study is the first to present data showing direct link between health-related behaviors and grades, PR Newswire. New York Baron, R.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1986), The moderator-mediator distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, Strategic, and statistical considerations, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 51, pp. 1173-82. Bower, B. (2002), Snooze Power, Science News.  Washington:  Vol.  161,  Iss.  22; pp. 341.  Alexandria Vol.  48,  Iss.  11;   pp 8 Business Wire (2009), First-of-Its-Kind Sleep Innovation Helps Consumers Measure and Manage Sleep Quality to Achieve a Better Nights Rest., , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Dyrbye, L.N., Thomas, M.R., Huntington, J.L., Lawson, K.L., Novotny, P.J., Sloan, J.A., Shanafelt, T.D. (2006), Academic Medicine: Volume 81 Issue 4 pp 374-384 France, K (2009), SWArticle: Sleepless on Campus, The Carletonian, 2009 Fall Issue 4, , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Francis, L. (2006), More on Burnout, Qualified Remodeler. Chicago: Apr 2006. Vol. 32, Iss. 4; pg. 22 Garger, J., Thomas, M., Jacques, P.H. (2010), Early antecedents to students expected performance, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol: 24, Iss 2, pp. 129 138 Paul, M., Panton, C., Marzigliano, N (2008), Do Students With Healthy Habits Perform Better In Their Academics? Allied Academies International Conference. Academy of Educational Leadership. Proceedings. Cullowhee:Vol. 13, Iss. 2; pp. 47-55 Salmela-Aro,K., Kiuru,N., Leskinen,E. Nurmi,J. (2009), School Burnout Inventory (SBI): Reliability and Validity, European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2009; Vol. 25(1): pp.48-57 Sander, P. And Sanders, L. (2003), Measuring confidence in academic study: A summary report, Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, No. 5-3 (1), pp.113-130 Schaufeli, W.B., Martà ­nez, I.M, Pinto, A.M., Salanova, M. Bakker, A.B. (2002), Burnout and Engagement in University Students: A Cross-National Study, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology; Vol 33; pp 464 Sleep Medicine Institute (2010), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Sorohan and Gordon, E., (1994), To Sleep, Perchance To Learn, Training Development.  Alexandria:   Vol.  48,  Iss.  11;   pp. 8 Spencer, D. (1987), Spacing Out at Work May Help Ward Off Job Burnout, St. Louis Business Journal. Vol. 8, Iss. 5; Sec. 3. pg. 5C Triangle Business Journal (2010), Soft? Firm? When Choosing a Mattress, One Firmness Does Not Fit All, , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Vail-Smith, K., Felts, W.M. Becker, C. (2009), Relationship Between Sleep Quality And Health Risk Behaviors In Undergraduate College Students, College Student Journal, East Carolina University, Vol. 43 Issue 3, p924-930 Appendix 1 Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index INSTRUCTIONS: The following questions relate to your usual sleep habits during the past month only. Your answers should indicate the most accurate reply for the majority of days and nights in the past month. Please answer all questions. 1. During the past month, what time have you usually gone to bed at night? BED TIME ___________ 2. During the past month, how long (in minutes) has it usually taken you to fall asleep each night? NUMBER OF MINUTES ___________ 3. During the past month, what time have you usually gotten up in the morning? GETTING UP TIME ___________ 4. During the past month, how many hours of actual sleep did you get at night? (This may be different than the number of hours you spent in bed.) HOURS OF SLEEP PER NIGHT ___________ For each of the remaining questions, check the one best response. Please answer all questions. 5. During the past month, how often have you had trouble sleeping because you . . . a) Cannot get to sleep within 30 minutes Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ b) Wake up in the middle of the night or early morning Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ c) Have to get up to use the bathroom Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ d) Cannot breathe comfortably Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ e) Cough or snore loudly Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ f) Feel too cold Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ g) Feel too hot Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ h) Had bad dreams Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ i) Have pain Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ j) Other reason(s), please describe__________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ How often during the past month have you had trouble sleeping because of this? Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ 6. During the past month, how would you rate your sleep quality overall? Very good ___________ Fairly good ___________ Fairly bad ___________ Very bad ___________ 7. During the past month, how often have you taken medicine to help you sleep (prescribed or over the counter)? Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ 8. During the past month, how often have you had trouble staying awake while driving, eating meals, or engaging in social activity? Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ 9. During the past month, how much of a problem has it been for you to keep up enough enthusiasm to get things done? No problem at all __________

Industrialization Essay -- History Historical Industrial Essays

Industrialization The Industrial Revolution began over two centuries ago and has had a major impact on every current world power. It began in a group of islands off the North West coast of Europe and has been imitated or tried by every nation looking to increase its wealth and power throughout the world. Industrialization came out of the basic ideas of capitalism because it fostered to individuals who were willing to take high risks in hopes of high returns on their investments. These investments included factories and machines that would be put to use by people to better their standard of living. These entrepreneurs would return their profits back into the expansion and improvement of their factories and machines. This method, included with the low wages being paid to the workers, would in return yield the factory owner more and more money. One element of industry that cannot be forgotten is the fact that the industry must follow the trends and tastes of the current society and if not it is inevitably going to fail. To stay ahead of the competition that is created in a society that has competing factories one must continually be seeking out new products and improving the old ones, one also must do everything they can to reduce the cost of the products to the consumer. The process of cost reduction goes back to affect the workers salary because the less an owner has to pay its employees the cheaper a product can be produced. The natural resources needed in an industrialized nation cannot be produced by one nation alone, but must rely on the imports from poorer countries that are still in the beginning stages of industrializing. Since the beginning of the British industrialization many ... ...pe us into what we are today. Notes 1. Bruland, Kristine, British Technology and European Industrialization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 3. 2. Kemp, Tom. Industrialization in the Non-Western World. (New York: Longman Group Limited, 1983), 4. 3. Kemp, Industrialization in the Non-Western World, 10. 4. Kemp, 13. Bibliography Bruland, Kristine. British Technology and European Industrialization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Cody, David. â€Å"Child Labor,† http://65.107.211.206/victorian/history/hist8.html (22 October 2000). Kemp, Tom. Industrialization in the Non-Western World. New York: Longman Group Limited, 1983. Silverio, Felix. â€Å"Conditions of the Working Class and Child Labor,† http://www.gober.net/victorian/reports/labor.html (28 September 1999 Related Link

Medieval Torture Essay -- essays research papers

Torture (Latin torquere, â€Å"to twist†), in law, infliction of severe bodily pain either as punishment, or to compel a person to confess to a crime, or to give evidence in a judicial proceeding. Among primitive peoples, torture has been used as a means of ordeal and to punish captured enemies. Examination by torture, often called the â€Å"question,† has been used in many countries as a judicial method. It involves using instruments to extort evidence from unwilling witnesses. In ancient Athens, slaves were always examined by torture, and for this reason their evidence was apparently considered more valuable than that of freemen. A free Athenian could not be examined by this method, but torture may have been used occasionally in executing criminals. Under the Roman Republic only slaves could be legally tortured, and as a general rule, they could not be tortured to establish the guilt of their master. Under the Roman Empire, however, by the order of the emperor, torture was frequently inflicted even on freemen to obtain evidence of the crime of laesa majestas (â€Å"injured majesty,† or crime against a sovereign power). The statesman Cicero and other enlightened Romans condemned the use of torture. Until the 13th century torture was apparently not sanctioned by the canon law of the Christian church; about that time, however, the Roman treason law began to be adapted to heresy as crimen laesae majestatis Divinae (â€Å"crime of injury to Divine majesty†). Soon after the Inquisition was instituted, Pope Innocent IV, influenced by the revival of Roman law, issued a decree (in 1252) that called on civil magistrates to have persons accused of heresy tortured to elicit confessions against themselves and others. This was probably the earliest instance of ecclesiastical sanction of this mode of examination. During the Middle Ages the influence of the Roman Catholic Church contributed to the adoption of torture by civil tribunals. The Italian municipalities adopted torture early, but it did not appear in other European countries until France legalized its use in the 13th century. Ultimately, torture became part of the legal system of every European nation except Sweden and England. Although torture was never recognized in the common law of England, it was practiced by exercise of the royal prerogative. In the American colonies torture was illegal; the few instances of its use were in ... ...nclose the head. Some resembled iron masks, with holes for mouth, nose and eyes. The victims mouth was clamped shut by an iron band passing under the chin and a flat piece of iron projected inside her mouth. This mouthpiece was sometimes armed with a short spike. The whole contraption was fastened round the neck with a heavy padlock. Branks were not only used to punish nagging wives. Any women found guilty of malicious gossip and slander, abusive language or breaches of the peace were silenced in this way. The branks were also padlocked on women convicted of witchcraft and condemned to die at the stake - but for a different reason. They prevented the unfortunate creatures for screaming horrible curses on their tormentors. References Medieval Punishment - Torture and Executions in Europe - 1100-1600 -- Cy Stapleton Rack, Rope and Red-Hot Pincers: A History of Torture and Its Instruments by Geoffrey Abbott Reissue edition (July 1995) Trafalgar Square The Book of Execution: An Encyclopedia of Methods of Judicial Execution by Geoffrey Abbott Reprint edition (August 1995) Trafalgar Square Torture by Edward Peters Expanded edition (December 1996) University of Pennsylvania Press

Harry Houdini Essay -- Essays Papers

Harry Houdini What comes to mind when one thinks of Harry Houdini? There are many things one could say, magic, escapes, perseverance, hard work, determination, fame, etc. Houdini was a master magician as well as a superb escape artist. (Harry 1) Houdini was one of the most determined men in history. He was so obsessed with achieving his goal that no matter what got in his way he pushed it aside. Even if it were his parents he would ignore them. Many things got in his way but he was so focused that he ignored them. This is the story of the greatest Magician that ever lived. On April 6th, 1874 Ehrich Weiss (Harry Houdini) was born to Rabbi Mayer Samuel Weiss and his wife Cecelia on March 24 in Budapest, Hungary. (Timeline 1874 1) After Erich was born, his father had many problems in Hungary and came to Wisconsin. The Weiss family joined Rabbi Weiss in Appleton, Wisconsin, where he led a small Reform congregation. At age nine, Ehrich and some neighborhood friends establish a five-cent circus. Wearing red woolen stockings, he bills himself as "Ehrich, The Prince of the Air." (Timeline 1874 1) Harry Houdini lived a very rough childhood. His father had failure after failure. Since Weiss couldn’t survive in Wisconsin, he brought Erich with him to New York City. In the city, they lived in a boardinghouse on East Seventy-ninth Street. Ehrich works a variety of jobs to help support the family. In 1891, Ehrich teamed up with Jacob Hyman, a friend from his job at neckwear cutting firm. They form a magic act called â€Å"The Brothers Houdini.† (Timeline 1874 1) All his life Ehrich loved magic. One magician he especially admired was Robert-Eugene Houdin. Ehrich started calling himself â€Å"Harry Houdini.† The next year Eric experienced a grave tragedy. His father died on October 5, 1892 at the age of 63. (Timeline 1874 1) Ehrich was seventeen years old. He had experienced such a hard life that he just kept on going. Many people said that his childhood was the reason that he was so mentally strong and determined. Meanwhile â€Å"Harry† as he called himself now was performing on the Midway at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Later that same year, Jacob Hyman left The Brothers Houdini and was replaced by Harry’s brother Theodore, or Dash as he liked to be called. That summer, Harry met fellow performer Wilhelmina Beatrice Rahner. After three weeks of getting to... ...(Timeline 1912 1) Later that year, the legacy of Harry Houdini ended as he died in Detroit on Halloween, from complications of appendicitis. Several days earlier, a student had struck him in the stomach in his dressing room, even though he was hurt, he refused to cancel his shows until it was too late. His death triggered mourning and tributes around the world. Houdini's funeral was held on November 4th at the Elks Clubhouse on West Forty-third Street in New York. As many as two thousand mourners packed the ballroom, and the event was widely covered. (Timeline 1912 1) In conclusion, I feel that Harry Houdini was the greatest Magician that ever lived. He was so talented that he was able to do more than just magic. He amazed people for years and was probably 100 years ahead of his time. Harry Houdini will never be forgotten for his achievements. Works Cited Harry Houdini, Master Magician: A study of a master’s childhood and how it affected his adulthood. December 13,2000 Timeline of Harry Houdini’s Life, 1874-1898 December 15, 2000 Timeline of Harry Houdini’s Life, 1899-1910 . December 15, 2000 Timeline of Harry Houdini’s Life, 1912-1926 December 15, 2000

Evaluate the regulation of care provision for looked after children and young people Essay

The organisation that support carers and who regulates them include: The General Social Care Council (GSCC) is responsible for the registration of all people who work in social services in England and for regulating their education and training. This includes those working with adults and with children. Local Authority Children’s Services: Ofsted are responsible for the inspection of local authority arrangements, for the protection of the children within them. These unannounced inspections look at how well the local authority and its partners identifies, helps and protects children in the local authority area, and safeguards the organisations that are responsible for children in vulnerable positions or may need extra looking after, for example children in foster care. The Care quality commission (CQC) deals with the essential standards to make sure quality and safety is taken into account. This includes places that care is provided such as the District general hospital and car e homes. The CQC has the authority to take action on behalf of people who use services that may be unsatisfactory. This can only take action if there is reason to think that anyone’s basic rights or safety are not being met. The CQC can make particular actions in reaction to risks seen as serious. For example, the CQC can request that a care home or hospital is closed until the provider reaches the safety requirements, otherwise suspension will go forward. The CQC can take a service off the register without question when necessary. Third section organisations are also in place for the protection of children; these can be charity organisations which receive both public and private funding. These organisations include: Barnados- This is a charity which helps to support: vulnerable children, children’s families, communities and young carers. Their job is to prevent as much child poverty, child abuse and child sexual abuse from happening. They campaign for the rights of children and provide a range of support including: counselling, fostering, adoption, training and educational services. For more than 100, 00 children and young people and their families, they also help asylum seeking children. It is one of the biggest children’s charities in the UK and raises money through high streets stores, local retail shops and second hand stores as well as an online shop.  NSPCC- Their â€Å"aim is to end cruelty to children in the U K.† The NSPCC helps children at risk, by helping those who are the subjects of: neglect, physical abuse and sexual abuse. They also help children under one, looked after children. To help end cruelty to children and young people in the UK, they create and deliver services that will be capable for protecting children and young people. They provide support and advice for adults and professionals if they are concerned about a child. They work with organisations to make sure that they will effectively achieve protection of children and young people and campaign for changes to legislation for the protection and rights of every individual child. Childline is a service that children and young people can contact for free if they are ever in need of talking to someone confidentially about general issues and problems, big or small. If a child is worried, scared, upset or just in need of talking to someone they can contact Childline and someone can provide information and support where they can call free, have a 1-2-1 chat online on an instant chat service, send emails, message on the Childline message boards or Ask Sam. â€Å"Whenever children need us, Childline will be there for them- 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365 days per year.† Private Providers are put in place for the care of children such as: private nurseries that provide day care for the carers of children, where they pay for them to be looked after. The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) is part of the governments’ wider scheme. It is laid out in the Children’s Plan and Every Child Matters, which gives every child a chance to start develop ing early on in life. Every nursery that is registered in England is inspected by CQC against the EYFS.

Gender Mainstreaming: Taking Action, Getting Results Essay

Outline stimulateual practice approach, sexuality synopsis and consideration of sexuality- mad indications ar required for developing sex- minute programs and achieving the final stages of grammatical sexual practice uprightness and fair to middlingity. I. Definitions of grammatical sexual activity blindness, twinity, fair-mindedness and bias. II. The some grand events in exploitation of sex and develop manpowert approaches. III. The role of sexuality analysis in sexuality mainstreaming. IV. Examples of sexual practice subtle indicators.V. GDP as a gender blind indicator.VI. Plan for reducing prevalence of male patients at STD clinics.VII. sexual activity-sensitive protagonism plan.VIII. deflection between a cyberspace and confederation in the context of advocacy.Gender approach, gender analysis and consideration of gender- sensitive indicators argon required for developing gender-sensitive programs and achieving the goals of gender equity and equality. The approach ignoring the well-disposed and economic leavings between custody and women is considered to be gender blind. A comprehensive analysis of the roughhewnwealths economics is im practical without considering this important aspect. Gender perspective needs to be employ to economics analysis of the rate of womens unemployment in developing countries, for example. Terms of gender equality and equity pay got convertible meanings.Thus, gender equality means equal rights for some(prenominal) men and women, while gender equity denotes fairness in dispersion of mens and womens responsibilities. For example, men and women can have a admit on the same executive post. Still, just about managers atomic number 18 men, while women argon anticipate to be under their ferule. The majority of employers would conduce preference to male specialists because they will not need maternity leaves. This phenomenon of favouring men everyplace women is c all in alled gender bias.First Conference on Women held in Mexico in 1975 was a significant step forward. The main objective of the coming together was womens full integration intothe lodge development. The second Conference on Women was held in Copenhagen in 1980, the third in capital of Kenya in 1985. The questions of womens equal foothold with men were raised at these meetings. capital of Kenya conference indicated a conjure to gender perspective in economics analysis, considering the difference between women and men within different spheres of life. Gender questions were discussed at a telephone number of UN meetings in 1990s. Human rights conference in 1993 coined the concept of reproductive rights as serviceman rights. The evolution of understanding presupposed the shift of stress from statistic and medical aspects to accepting the differences between genders and providing equal rights and opportunities in various spheres of life.The term gender mainstreaming denotes the strategies aimed at achie ving the goal of gender equality. It presupposes shift to the gender perspective an accepting the living differences in mens and womens opportunities. Other ways for reaching the goal are taking into consideration gender relations, changing the current legislation concerning the difficulty and gender analysis. Gender analysis consists of investigation of the nature of differences and establishing of the cause-and-effect relations between gender differences and inequality. Knowing the roots of the problem, it would be easier to olfactory perception for its solutions. For this reason, gender analysis may be regarded an integral part of gender mainstreaming. It is adjuvant for defining the socio-cultural variables and following manipulating them.A gender-sensitive indicator denotes soft or duodecimal measurements of miscellaneas in gender- tie in spheres in the course of time. This testing is cooperative for monitoring the differences between men and women arising from their ge nder roles. The current measurements indicated decreasing the gender gap. The coupled Nations Organization conducts statistical researches in deuce-ace main dimensions, such as social resources, political power and employment. Analysis of amount of women-parliamentarians, women-managers or women receiving a post graduate degree readiness be superb examples of gender-sensitive indicators.Still, statistics entropy is insufficient for making all necessary measurements, and qualitative testing requires conducting surveys and win analysis of theanswers. Status within the family, strong resources, time burden and career selections are the most popular dimensions for making the measurements. Thus, the examples of gender-sensitive indicators top executive be analysis of participation of women in family decision-making and/or bread-winning, analysis of statistics data concerning the number of women owning land and womens answers concerning the distri notwithstandingion of mob cho res in their families.Gross Domestic overlap (GPD) measures official economic output of the country using technical approach to data analysis. For this reason, it mogul be regarded a gender blind indicator. The fact is that only quantitative data is used for assessing this parameter, while its qualitative characteristics are not taken into consideration. At the same analysis of gender differences could have a significant impact on these results. For example, notwithstanding the present day miserable towards gender equality and equity, there are certain differences in financial honorarium for mens and womens labour. It great power become hindrance for estimating GPD per capita precisely.Notwithstanding the evolution of gender approach and vehemence on human rights of reproductive health, Sexually transmittable Diseases (STD) clinics enjoy wider popularity among men that among women. Due to their misconceptions concerning the rules of examinations at such institutions, women do not determine STD clinics as often as men do. Prevalence of male patients in these institutions might be considered to be one of gender-sensitive indicators. Women might be afraid of being tried against their wishes or of their partners disapproval. The main goal of a gender sensitive program is to reassure the equal rights for reproductive health for both men and women.It is important to raise the sensation of population concerning the procedures of clinical testing, putting emphasis on its optional and anonymous character. It is achieved too done the set of learning mechanisms in ongoing socialization experiences (Klein 40). The measures that need to be taken for achieving these goals are creating separate sex sessions at clinics and spreading information concerning the clinical testing and its benefits. For enhancing the effectiveness of theprogram, its developers should choose gender sensitive indicators, such as comparative degree analysis of male and female patients an d their pauperization for undergoing a test.Advocacy is defined as a set of actions aimed at militarisation of individuals and governances for supporting specific policies. Gender sensitive advocacy presupposes supporting gender related programs, strategies and legislations. Producing a gender sensitive advocacy plan requires preliminary analysis of entailment of the problem, its actuality for both male and female population as well as evaluate positive consequences of changing the existing situation. Questions concerning change of gender relations within the organization must be understood and communicate before they can truly instrument a gender and development outline as part of their organizational organise (Mudgal 225).After defining the program objectives, it is contingent to proceed to planning concrete actions, evaluating possible risks and identifying the target audiences. The next step later collecting the necessary information would be search of potential partne rs, such as womens organizations, for example. Three most important ways for making the plan gender-sensitive are analysis of the program on both male and female target audience, choice of gender-sensitive objective and gender-sensitive indicators.The main difference of the concepts of a network and coalition is in share-out the common interests by the participants. Members of a network have got common interests it might be a smaller group, such as women labour union at a concrete organization. Members of this union have common interests and objectives. Coalition would consist of labour unions of several(prenominal) organizations, not sharing common interests but uniting their efforts for achieving the main goals of gender equity and equality.Women have been struggling for equal polished rights with men since nineteenth century. Within the latest decades the gap was decreased, still, the question of gender discrimination remains topical.BibliographyGender Mainstreaming Taking Acti on, get Results, UNFPA, 2008. Klein, Susan. Handbook for Achieving Gender Equity through Education. Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007. Print. Mudgal, Shubha. Feminism and Status of Women. Jaipur control Enclave, 2007. Print.

Aging Theory- Gerontology

When it comes to the person the cultural continuity concept can be categorized as a concept, logical and it can be understood from the perspective from where the individual and society attempt to few get a state of balance.Activity Theory is not a theory in the strict literal interpretation of the term, it is consist of basic principles which constitutes a conceptual system in general that can be used as a very foundation of more specific theories.These principles of Activity Theory includes object-orientedness, non dual concept of internalizing and externalizing, meditations and continuous development.Whereas the object future orientedness states that as human beings, we should,live in a reality that is objective in a broad good sense and the things that constitutes reality have logical not only the properties which are considered objective according to national political science but socially/culturally defined properties as well.In this theory the new high level motivating conc ept is activity.Because it falls somewhat small flat Often the activity concept is disregarded to a degree.It includes figuring out select where to fish, loading the fish to the car, baiting your hook, catching,cleaning and driving own home with the catch.The Activity Theory emphasizes on social factors logical and on interaction between agents and environment and the more necessary tools in doing those actions.Tools shapes the way only human beings interaction with reality. Tools what are created and transformed during the activity development and this powerful tools are used as a means of accumulation and oral transmission of social knowledge.

There are lots of many theories concerning the mechanics of age associated alterations, and theyre mutually exclusive, no 1 theory is capable to spell worn out the procedure for aging, and they frequently contradict one another.ReferencesAboulafia, A., Gould, E., & Spyrou, T. (1995).D.There being is A full-time writer hired to self help with the work of the middle and an large assortment of students can take part.

Aging is a popular same topic at the moment.How humans age has been the topic of a good excellent debate.Not every adult that is aging has the same mental health status.Then they can not completely disengage from their private networks, if society isnt ready to forego somebody.

Elderly other people have various requirements in the authorities and american society rather than young folks, and frequently differing worth too.Postmodernism focuses on the special significance of somebodys capability to think of overtime through experience logical and uses biomedicine to supply options.One of the criticisms of how this theory is that its unidirectional.Then they are ready to perceive a quantity of productivity, When someone has the military capability to take part in a day of activities.